Study Guide

Section 3: Test Summary and Framework
WEST–E Social Studies (028)

The Washington Educator Skills Tests–Endorsements (WEST–E) are designed to measure a candidate's knowledge of the subject-area content contained in the test framework for each field. All WEST–E tests are fully aligned with the state's teacher endorsement competencies and, as applicable, the Essential Academic Learning Requirements.

Test Summary

This test summary describes general testing information as well as the approximate percentage of the total test score derived from each content domain. The test framework, organized by content domain, contains the objectives that define the content for the test.

Test Framework

Civics

Objective 0001: Understand the purposes and functions of governments, laws, and political systems and the organization of government in the United States.

For example:

• recognizing the purposes of government and comparing democratic, monarchial, theocratic, oligarchic, and totalitarian forms of government
• examining the functions of law in a democratic society and analyzing the principles and features of the U.S. legal system, including habeas corpus and trial by jury
• describing the organization, operation, and responsibilities of the federal, tribal, and Washington State governments and demonstrating knowledge of major provisions of the Washington State Constitution
• demonstrating an understanding of the concept of federalism and examining the ways in which power is shared among federal, state, and local governments
• comparing the roles of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the federal government as defined by Articles I, II, and III of the U.S. Constitution (including the legislature's bicameral structure, law-making function, and power of taxation and the executive's veto, treaty-making, and commander-in-chief authority) and analyzing problems and solutions related to the distribution of power among the three branches of government

Objective 0002: Understand key ideals and principles of democratic government in the United States.

For example:

• relating the ideal of limited government contained in the Magna Carta to the U.S. Constitution and analyzing the influence of the Mayflower Compact and The Federalist Papers on the fundamental principles of democratic government in the United States
• assessing the contributions of European and colonial political thinkers, including John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, and Thomas Paine, to the development of ideas about government in the United States
• analyzing the political ideals expressed in the Declaration of Independence (inalienable rights, the right of revolution) and the U.S. Constitution (popular sovereignty, separation of powers)
• demonstrating an understanding of fundamental democratic concepts of limited government, constitutional supremacy, rule of law, checks and balances, and judicial review
• examining the key democratic ideals of individual human dignity, liberty, justice, equality, and the common good
• demonstrating an understanding of the protections provided by the Bill of Rights and other major constitutional amendments (including the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments and the rights of African Americans, the Nineteenth Amendment and women's suffrage, the Twenty-sixth Amendment and the right of 18 year olds to vote)
• analyzing major issues in landmark Supreme Court decisions (including Marbury v. Madison and the principle of judicial review, Dartmouth College v. Woodward and the rights of corporations, Plessy v. Ferguson and the doctrine of separate but equal, Schenk v. United States and the right of free speech, Miranda v. Arizona and the rights of the accused, Roe v. Wade and the right to privacy)

Objective 0003: Understand the U.S. election process, the rights and responsibilities of citizenship, and the principles of democratic civic involvement.

For example:

• demonstrating an understanding of the electoral process in the United States, including the Electoral College and other important components of the electoral system
• examining the role of political parties in the United States, analyzing significant developments in the evolution of U.S. political parties, and demonstrating an understanding of the operation of the contemporary two-party system
• analyzing ways in which citizens effectively participate in and influence the political process
• assessing the influence of campaign spending, advertising, and public opinion polls on the U.S. electoral process
• analyzing how interest groups, the media, and other stakeholders influence the governmental decision-making process and shape major public policy initiatives, such as the New Deal and the Great Society
• demonstrating knowledge of the political, legal, and personal rights guaranteed to citizens of the United States and recognizing the responsibilities of U.S. citizenship
• analyzing developments that have increased or diminished individual rights and participation in the U.S. political system

Objective 0004: Understand principles of international law, international relationships, and the goals and execution of United States foreign policy.

For example:

• recognizing fundamental principles of international law (including self-defense, freedom of the seas, legally binding treaties); evaluating how national interests are maintained through international agreements, treaties, and alliances; and analyzing ways in which governments of different countries interact with one another
• examining the roles of public and private international organizations and analyzing U.S. relationships and interactions with these organizations
• recognizing the powers the U.S. Constitution gives to the president, Congress, and the federal judiciary in foreign affairs and identifying the administrative components of the U.S. foreign policy establishment
• examining the process by which U.S. foreign policy is made and analyzing the influence of various factors and competing interests on the development of U.S. foreign policy
• assessing historical and contemporary U.S. foreign policy decisions and analyzing their influence on U.S. relations with the world

Economics

Objective 0005: Understand basic economic concepts and apply that knowledge to examine economic issues and problems.

For example:

• recognizing the different functions of money and analyzing how money makes it possible to trade, borrow, save, invest, and compare the value of goods and services
• identifying the factors of production and examining how natural resources, labor, capital, and entrepreneurial management work together to produce goods and services
• analyzing how groups and individuals confront scarcity and choice when organizing, producing, and using resources
• evaluating how individual and cultural values and beliefs influence economic choices and analyzing how economic decisions made by groups and individuals can benefit and/or impose costs on others
• defining productivity and assessing how productivity improvements and technological change influence standards of living

Objective 0006: Understand how economic systems function and basic principles of international economics.

For example:

• comparing the characteristics, advantages, and limitations of traditional, command, market, and mixed economic systems
• analyzing the circular flow of goods, services, and labor that households and businesses form in an economic system
• recognizing the interaction between supply and demand in a market economy and explaining how various factors affect supply and demand
• analyzing how prices coordinate production and exchange in economic systems and examining how prices provide information and incentives that assist the economic decision-making process
• recognizing the role of banks, financial markets, labor unions, corporations, and consumers in the U.S. economic system
• explaining the ways in which trade produces both benefits and costs for individual nations and analyzing how comparative advantage encourages specialization in the U.S. and global economies

Objective 0007: Understand the role of government in the U.S. economic system.

For example:

• analyzing the role of government in reallocating resources, providing goods and services, maintaining a legal framework for economic activity, and redistributing wealth between income groups
• examining ways in which government regulates economic activity in the United States and evaluating the costs and benefits of government regulation for the U.S. economy
• analyzing examples of government fiscal policy and considering how changes in fiscal policy affect economic activity
• demonstrating knowledge of how the federal government uses monetary policy to influence the U.S. economy and analyzing decisions by the government to expand or contract the nation's money supply
• comparing the costs and benefits of government policies that affect U.S. trade with other nations

Geography

Objective 0008: Understand the uses of maps, globes, and other geographic tools and the location and characteristics of major physical features of the earth.

For example:

• demonstrating knowledge of basic map characteristics, recognizing the difference between maps and globes, comparing different map projections, and using maps and globes to analyze geographic phenomena
• describing the characteristics and uses of the Global Positioning System and geographic information systems
• using the Five Themes of Geography—Place, Region, Human/Environment Interaction, Location, and Movement—to examine geographic phenomena and analyze geographic issues
• demonstrating knowledge of the physical processes that affect the earth and shape places and regions of the world, the United States, and the Pacific Northwest
• identifying the location and describing the characteristics of major landforms and bodies of water and describing the characteristics and distribution of major climate regions

Objective 0009: Understand the human geography of places and regions.

For example:

• defining and applying basic terms and concepts of human geography
• analyzing cultural activities that have influenced human spatial patterns and comparing the cultural characteristics of different world regions
• identifying the political and cultural divisions of various world regions and analyzing human interactions within and among different societies
• examining how the forces of cooperation and conflict among peoples and nations influence the division and control of the earth and its resources
• analyzing the physical characteristics and cultural interactions that define the Pacific Northwest and Pacific Rim as regions

Objective 0010: Understand the interactions between humans, the environment, and culture.

For example:

• analyzing how human societies make use of different kinds of natural resources and examining changes in the meaning, use, distribution, and importance of various resources
• analyzing the effects of physical factors such as climate, topography, ecology, and location on population distribution, industry, agriculture, trade, and transportation
• demonstrating an understanding of how human actions modify the physical environment and examining how human societies adapt to environmental change
• comparing ways in which technological innovations solve environmental problems and create new ones
• analyzing the influence of culture on individuals and societies and examining the roles played by social institutions in the development and transmission of culture
• examining different interactions among cultures and the ways in which such interactions influence the diffusion of cultural products, practices, and perspectives

Objective 0011: Understand the geographic context of major global issues and events.

For example:

• analyzing how geographic factors have influenced historical events and developments
• recognizing patterns and networks of economic interdependence and examining the geographic factors influencing the global economy
• analyzing the spatial dimensions of contemporary domestic and international political issues
• recognizing the geographic factors encouraging human migration in the twenty-first century and analyzing the impact of migration on different regions of the world
• examining the origins of global environmental problems and challenges and analyzing the potential effects of these phenomena on human societies and natural ecosystems

U.S. History

Objective 0012: Understand major developments in early U.S. history from the precontact period to 1791.

For example:

• examining the cultural practices and perspectives of the indigenous peoples of North America and analyzing the impact of European settlement on Native Americans
• exploring patterns of coexistence and conflict between Europeans and Native Americans during the colonial period
• comparing major features of European colonial settlements in North America
• analyzing the political, social, and economic origins of the movement for American independence (the Proclamation of 1763 limiting colonial expansion, colonial objections to taxation without representation, the Stamp Act, the Townshend Acts, the Tea Act, the Intolerable Acts) and examining major events leading to the Revolutionary War (the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battles of Lexington and Concord)
• recognizing the role of major figures involved in the colonial struggle for independence and the formation of the new government, including George III, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, and George Washington
• assessing the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, including the balance of power between the states and the federal government; analyzing major issues and debates surrounding the creation and ratification of the U.S. Constitution; and recognizing major issues addressed by the Constitution (representation, slavery, structure of government, checks and balances, the protection of individual liberty)

Objective 0013: Understand major political, economic, and social developments in U.S. history from 1791 to 1877.

For example:

• examining major political developments in the United States during the first years of the nation (the rise of political parties, the economic policies of Alexander Hamilton, the Alien and Sedition Acts, the presidential election of 1800) and demonstrating an understanding of U.S. foreign relations and major territorial policies of the early Republic (the Louisiana Purchase, the War of 1812, the Monroe Doctrine)
• demonstrating an understanding of the course of westward expansion (Lewis and Clark expedition) and examining the impact of westward expansion on Native Americans (Manifest Destiny, the Trail of Tears, the Battle of the Little Bighorn, Chief Joseph and the resistance of the Nez Percé)
• examining the role that transportation improvements (the Erie Canal, the transcontinental railroads), technological innovations (the telegraph), and industrial development played in the economic growth and transformation of the United States
• demonstrating an understanding of the origins and growth of slavery in the United States; examining the role of slavery in southern cultural, political, and economic life; analyzing the arguments for and against slavery; and recognizing acts of resistance to slavery (Nat Turner's rebellion, Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison, Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad)
• considering the origins and effects of the social movements of the first half of the nineteenth century, including the women's suffrage movement, the temperance movement, and the abolitionist movement, and analyzing the theme of recurring social movements in U.S. history
• examining the development of sectionalism (the doctrine of states' rights, the different economic systems of the North and the South), the growth of slavery as a national issue (Dred Scott, the Fugitive Slave Acts), and efforts at compromise (the Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850) in the decades prior to the Civil War
• analyzing the impact of the Civil War on northern and southern societies and assessing the political, economic, and social consequences of the war (the promulgation of the Emancipation Proclamation)
• analyzing key events and developments during Reconstruction (the impeachment of Andrew Johnson) and evaluating the achievements and failures of the Reconstruction era (ratification of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution; the enactment of Black Codes)

Objective 0014: Understand major political, economic, and social developments in U.S. history from 1877 to 1945.

For example:

• analyzing the causes, effects, and changing nature of immigration to the United States; assessing the impact of urbanization on U.S. social, political, and economic life, including the rise of the middle class; and examining ethnic and racial conflict in U.S. society, including the Chinese Exclusion Act, the growth of the Ku Klux Klan, the massacre at Wounded Knee, and the Dawes Act
• analyzing the effects of major technological innovations, such as the assembly line and the automobile, on U.S. industry and society; evaluating the role of Henry Ford and other entrepreneurs in the industrialization of the U.S. economy; recognizing the transformation of the U.S. labor movement from skilled to industrial unions; and examining the social philosophies and economic and political responses (trust-busting, muckraking, the Progressive movement) to the industrial experience
• examining the Spanish-American War and the emergence of the United States as a world power; recognizing the importance of U.S. involvement in Latin America, including the construction of the Panama Canal; and considering key issues in the debate over U.S. expansionism (the Anglo-Saxon mission and new markets versus a fear of foreign entanglements and a threat to democratic values)
• demonstrating an understanding of the issue of neutrality and U.S. reluctance to become involved in World War I; recognizing the events that brought the United States into the war; and analyzing the effect of the war on U.S. domestic and foreign affairs, including the rejection of the League of Nations, the Red Scare, and the retreat into isolationism
• examining the social, technological, and financial sources of postwar prosperity; recognizing the influence of laissez-faire economics on U.S. business and government; evaluating the effects of economic growth on U.S. politics, arts, and popular culture; and demonstrating an understanding of the significance of the Harlem Renaissance both within and beyond the African American community
• analyzing the immediate and broader causes of the Great Depression; evaluating the response of Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal to the collapse of the U.S. economy; and assessing the impact of the Depression on business, labor, agriculture, and politics in the United States
• examining the attack on Pearl Harbor and the origins of U.S. involvement in World War II; recognizing the division of combatants between Allied and Axis powers; evaluating the effects of the war on U.S. society, including black migration to northern cities and the entrance of women into the workforce; and considering the U.S. decision to drop the atomic bomb

Objective 0015: Understand major political, economic, and social developments in U.S. history from 1945 to the present.

For example:

• analyzing the causes, major events, and developments of the Cold War (the nuclear arms race, the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the construction and fall of the Berlin Wall, the Cuban Missile Crisis); demonstrating an understanding of McCarthyism and the anti-Communist crusade in the United States; and considering the impact of the Cold War on U.S. politics and society
• comparing the origins and outcomes of the Korean and Vietnam Wars (including the doctrine of containment, the role of the United Nations in Korea, the continuing division of the Korean peninsula, Vietnamese nationalism, the domino theory) and the influence of those conflicts on U.S. foreign policy and international relations
• analyzing the growth of the suburbs and other major social changes and economic developments in the United States during the postwar era, including the shift from a manufacturing economy to a service and information economy and the increased role of the federal government in the U.S. economy
• examining key individuals, strategies, and achievements of the civil rights movement (Rosa Parks, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., nonviolent resistance, black power, Brown v. Board of Education, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act) and analyzing the causes and consequences of social reform movements of the 1960s and 1970s (the women's rights movement, the United Farm Workers, the Native American rights movement)
• examining major political developments since World War II (the Great Society, the war on poverty, Watergate, the conservative movement) and evaluating their impact on U.S. society
• analyzing technological growth and development during the second half of the twentieth century (television, the space race, the interstate highway system, the Internet) and considering the influence of technology on culture, communication, and industry in the United States
• examining the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States and other contemporary issues in U.S. foreign and domestic affairs and analyzing the response of government and society to the challenges and opportunities of the twenty-first century

Objective 0016: Understand major events, individuals, themes, and developments in Washington State history.

For example:

• examining the cultural practices and perspectives of the Northwest Coastal and Plateau tribes and analyzing the effects of European settlement on Native Americans in Washington State
• analyzing the causes and effects of historic and contemporary immigration and settlement patterns in Washington State (the Oregon Trail) and examining economic, social, and political interactions among the state's diverse ethnic groups
• demonstrating an understanding of important social, economic, and political developments during the territorial and treaty-making era (the Great Migration, the Stevens treaties)
• examining the achievement of statehood; demonstrating knowledge of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and the Seattle General Strike of 1919; evaluating the effects of the Great Depression, the development of the Columbia Basin, and World War II on Washington State, including Japanese internment; and analyzing major political, social, and economic developments in Washington between 1880 and 1945
• demonstrating knowledge of the growth of Hanford Engineering Works, the Boeing Company, and Microsoft and analyzing the economic development of Washington State since the end of World War II
• analyzing the social, political, and economic issues that have shaped contemporary Washington history (the preservation of old-growth forests, the Boldt Decision, immigration and migrant labor, economic globalization)

World History

Objective 0017: Understand the development of major world civilizations from 8000 BCE to 600 CE.

For example:

• demonstrating knowledge of the emergence and development of human societies in Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas
• comparing central features of the civilizations that arose in Egypt and Mesopotamia (the Nile River, rule of the pharaohs, the Fertile Crescent, the Code of Hammurabi), analyzing cultural interactions and conflicts between them, and examining the influence of Egypt and Mesopotamia on the early kingdoms of northeast Africa
• tracing the emergence of Hinduism and Buddhism on the Indian subcontinent, recognizing the importance of caste in the development of Indian civilization, and assessing the influence of Buddhism on other Asian civilizations
• examining the development of Chinese civilization and analyzing the role of Confucianism in shaping the political and social foundations of Chinese culture
• analyzing the development of democracy in ancient Greece (city-states, direct democracy); evaluating the contributions of Greek artists, writers, philosophers, and scientists (Socrates and the Socratic method of inquiry, Plato's Republic and the exploration of justice); and examining factors that encouraged the diffusion of Hellenistic culture
• demonstrating an understanding of politics and society in the Roman Republic; considering Roman contributions in architecture and engineering; and evaluating reasons for the expansion and decline of the Roman Empire
• examining the emergence of monotheistic religion and demonstrating an understanding of the principal beliefs, sacred texts, and historical development of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

Objective 0018: Understand major developments in world history from 600 to 1600.

For example:

• examining the role of Mohammed in the establishment and expansion of Islamic civilization; assessing significant Muslim contributions in science, technology, commerce, and the arts; and analyzing the impact of these contributions on European civilization
• analyzing the role of geography and trade on the growth and expansion of African kingdoms
• comparing principal features of major civilizations of the Americas and analyzing the rise and fall of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca empires
• examining the growth and expansion of the Mongol Empire, analyzing the emergence of Japanese civilization, and demonstrating an understanding of feudalism in medieval Japan
• exploring the evolution of feudalism in western Europe, examining the role of the Roman Catholic Church in medieval civilization, analyzing the causes and consequences of the Crusades, and evaluating the impact of the Black Death on European society
• analyzing the economic and political foundations of the European Renaissance, recognizing the achievements of Leonardo da Vinci and other major Renaissance figures, examining the growth of printing and the spread of Renaissance ideas throughout Europe, and evaluating the impact of the Renaissance on the development of Western civilization
• demonstrating an understanding of the fundamental issues that emerged during the Protestant Reformation and recognizing the role of Martin Luther in the transformation of the Christian church

Objective 0019: Understand major developments in world history during the Era of Global Expansion and Encounter (1450 to 1750).

For example:

• recognizing the scientific contributions of Galileo and Copernicus to a heliocentric understanding of the solar system and examining the ways in which the Scientific Revolution influenced the development of European civilization
• analyzing the political, economic, religious, and technological factors encouraging European expansion and recognizing how the voyages of Christopher Columbus helped propel European exploration of the Americas
• demonstrating knowledge of the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires and considering the strategic, military, and economic competition among European colonial powers
• examining the impact of the Columbian Exchange on Europe and the Americas and analyzing the causes and consequences of the transatlantic slave trade
• exploring interactions among European and non-European societies and analyzing the social, economic, political, and intellectual effects of contacts between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas
• examining the growth of global economics and market systems, demonstrating an understanding of the Triangular Trade, and analyzing European dominance in world economics after 1600

Objective 0020: Understand major developments in world history during the Age of Revolutions (1750 to 1914).

For example:

• analyzing the emergence of the European Enlightenment, examining the ideas of John Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers, and assessing the influence of the Enlightenment in Europe and the Americas
• demonstrating an understanding of the origins and results of the French Revolution
• examining the spread of democratic ideals beyond Europe and the United States
• analyzing the causes and consequences of the agricultural and industrial revolutions; comparing the effects of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, France, Germany, and Japan; and examining the Marxist critique of the industrial state
• considering motives and justifications for the pursuit of colonial empires during the nineteenth century, comparing spheres of interest and analyzing rivalries among colonial powers, and examining interactions and conflicts between imperialist powers and the peoples of Asia and Africa
• examining the concept of modernization and comparing efforts at modernization in Europe and Asia

Objective 0021: Understand major developments in world history during the modern era (1914 to the present).

For example:

• demonstrating an understanding of the causes and consequences of World War I, including the growth of European nationalism, the prewar alliance system, the Russian Revolution, and the Treaty of Versailles
• analyzing the origins of World War II, including the rise of fascism and the policy of appeasement; recognizing how Nazi beliefs and policies led to the Holocaust; and assessing the major results of World War II, including the loss of European empires, the creation of the United Nations, and the expansion of Communism
• demonstrating an understanding of the process of decolonization in Asia and Africa; examining the creation and development of new nations in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East; and analyzing issues arising from decolonization and independence, such as the South African system of apartheid and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
• exploring major human rights violations by governments and nongovernmental groups and the evolution of human rights movements and protections
• demonstrating an understanding of the causes and consequences of the Chinese Revolution and evaluating China's emergence as a world economic and political power
• assessing the geopolitical interests, military rivalries, and ideological conflicts that led to the Cold War; analyzing the impact of the Cold War on international relations; and examining the collapse of the Soviet Union
• analyzing political, social, and economic developments in Latin America, including political revolution and reaction, changing economic relations with the United States and the world, the role of religion in Latin American societies, and the growth of democratic governments
• exploring the cultural and intellectual integration of countries in the world economy and analyzing the growth of economic and political connections among nations since 1945

Social Studies Concepts and Skills

Objective 0022: Understand and apply social studies terms, concepts, and perspectives.

For example:

• applying basic social studies terms and concepts to analyze a variety of civic, economic, geographic, and historical events, issues, and interpretations
• placing historical events in chronological order and grouping events and individuals into broadly defined historical eras
• comparing different cultural perceptions and measurements of time and contrasting alternative models of historical periodization
• evaluating cause-and-effect relationships among important developments from a given era
• comparing and evaluating multiple historical and social scientific perspectives and analyzing factors that influence those perspectives

Objective 0023: Understand how to locate social studies information.

For example:

• using various reference resources to answer social studies questions and conduct historical and social scientific research
• analyzing the benefits and limitations of different types of historical and social scientific evidence and information
• using key words to facilitate traditional and online research in history and the social sciences
• distinguishing between primary and secondary sources and assessing the advantages and disadvantages of each
• applying research skills and procedures used in history and the social sciences

Objective 0024: Understand methods for analyzing and interpreting social studies information and applying critical reasoning to evaluate presentations of social studies data.

For example:

• identifying main ideas and central issues in historical and social scientific interpretations, analyzing relationships among ideas, asking questions to verify and refine understanding, and drawing conclusions
• determining the adequacy and relevance of information in historical and social scientific arguments and validating data using multiple sources
• interpreting information presented in charts, tables, maps, graphs, diagrams, political cartoons, and timelines
• distinguishing between fact, opinion, and reasoned argument; clarifying point of view; and analyzing assumptions underlying historical and social scientific interpretations
• evaluating the accuracy, reliability, credibility, and validity of various sources of historical and social scientific information
• recognizing fallacies, stereotypes, biases, and propaganda in historical narratives and social scientific interpretations

Objective 0025: Understand methods for presenting social studies information, communicating about social studies topics, and deliberating effectively with others.

For example:

• paraphrasing and summarizing social studies issues, interpretations, and disputes
• formulating and supporting a historical thesis using appropriate content and verifiable evidence
• evaluating the appropriateness of alternative graphic formats for conveying social studies information
• selecting constructive questions to clarify issues and challenge historical or social scientific assertions
• recognizing the audience for specific social studies information and adapting presentations to the target audience
• applying strategies for developing persuasive oral presentations and composing coherent written interpretations that express positions on social studies issues and justify those positions with reasoned arguments
• applying methods for resolving conflicts, negotiating differences, and achieving compromise on positions involving social studies information or interpretations